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Magnoliopsida
Morus L.
EOL Text
Morus, a genus of flowering plants in the family Moraceae, comprises 10–16 species of deciduous trees commonly known as mulberries growing wild and under cultivation in many temperate world regions.[2]
The closely related genus Broussonetia is also commonly known as mulberry, notably the Paper Mulberry, Broussonetia papyrifera. Mulberries are swift-growing when young, but soon become slow-growing and rarely exceed 10–15 m (33–49 ft) tall. The leaves are alternately arranged, simple, often lobed, more often lobed on juvenile shoots than on mature trees, and serrated on the margin.
The trees can be monoecious or dioecious.[3][4]
The mulberry fruit is a multiple fruit, 2–3 cm (0.79–1.18 in) long. Immature fruits are white, green, or pale yellow. In most species, the fruits turn pink and then red while ripening, then dark purple or black, and have a sweet flavor when fully ripe. The fruits of the white-fruited cultivar are white when ripe; the fruit in this cultivar is also sweet but has a very mild flavor compared with the darker variety.
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Species[edit]
The taxonomy of Morus is complex and disputed. Over 150 species names have been published, and although differing sources may cite different selections of accepted names, only 10–16 are generally cited as being accepted by the vast majority of botanical authorities. Morus classification is even further complicated by widespread hybridisation, wherein the hybrids are fertile.
The following species are generally accepted:
- Morus alba L. – White Mulberry (E Asia)
- Morus australis Poir. – Chinese Mulberry (SE Asia)
- Morus celtidifolia Kunth (Mexico)
- Morus insignis (S America)
- Morus mesozygia Stapf – African Mulberry (S and C Africa)
- Morus microphylla – Texas Mulberry (Mexico, Texas (USA))
- Morus nigra L. – Black Mulberry (SW Asia)
- Morus rubra L. – Red Mulberry (E N America)
The following, all from eastern and southern Asia, are additionally accepted by one or more taxonomic lists or studies; synonymy, as given by other lists or studies, is indicated in square brackets:
- Morus atropurpurea [M. alba var. alba]
- Morus bombycis [M. australis]
- Morus cathayana
- Morus indica [M. alba]
- Morus japonica [M. alba]
- Morus kagayamae [M. australis]
- Morus laevigata [M. alba var. laevigata; M. macroura]
- Morus latifolia [M. alba]
- Morus liboensis
- Morus macroura [M. alba var. laevigata]
- Morus mongolica [M. alba var. mongolica]
- Morus multicaulis [M. alba var. multicaulis]
- Morus notabilis
- Morus rotundiloba
- Morus serrata [M. alba var. serrata], Himalayan mulberry
- Morus tillaefolia
- Morus trilobata [M. australis var. trilobata]
- Morus wittiorum
Uses and cultivation[edit]
The ripe fruit is edible and is widely used in pies, tarts, wines, cordials and tea. The fruit of the black mulberry, native to southwest Asia, and the red mulberry, native to eastern North America, have the strongest flavor, which has been likened to 'fireworks in the mouth'.[5]
The fruit of the white mulberry, an east Asian species which is extensively naturalized in urban regions of eastern North America, has a different flavor, sometimes characterized as refreshing and a little tart, with a bit of gumminess to it and a hint of vanilla.[6][7] In North America the white mulberry is considered an invasive exotic and has taken over extensive tracts from native plant species, including the red mulberry.[8] The mature plant contains significant amounts of resveratrol, particularly in stem bark.[9] The fruit and leaves are sold in various forms as nutritional supplements. Unripe fruit and green parts of the plant have a white sap that may be toxic, stimulating, or mildly hallucinogenic.[10]
Black, red, and white mulberry are widespread in southern Europe, the Middle East, northern Africa and Indian Subcontinent where the tree and the fruit have names under regional dialects. Jams and sherbets are often made from the fruit in this region. Black mulberry was imported to Britain in the 17th century in the hope that it would be useful in the cultivation of silkworms. It was much used in folk medicine, especially in the treatment of ringworm. Mulberries are also widespread in Greece, particularly in the Peloponnese, which in the Middle Ages was known as Morea (Greek: Μωριάς, Morias), deriving from the Greek word for the tree (Greek: Μουριά, Μouria).
Mulberries can be grown from seed, and this is often advised as seedling-grown trees are generally of better shape and health, but they are most often planted from large cuttings which root readily. The mulberry plants which are allowed to grow tall with a crown height of 5–6 feet from ground level and a stem girth of 4–5 inches or more is called tree mulberry. They are specially raised with the help of well-grown saplings 8–10 months old of any of the varieties recommended for rain-fed areas like S-13 (for red loamy soil) or S-34 (black cotton soil) which are tolerant to drought or soil-moisture stress conditions. Usually, the plantation is raised and in block formation with a spacing of 6 feet x 6 feet, or 8 feet x 8 feet, as plant to plant and row to row distance. The plants are usually pruned once a year during the monsoon season (July – August) to a height of 5–6 feet and allowed to grow with a maximum of 8–10 shoots at the crown. The leaves are harvested 3–4 times a year by a leaf picking method[clarification needed] under rain-fed or semi-arid conditions, depending on the monsoon.
The tree branches pruned during the fall season (after the leaves have fallen) are cut and used to make durable baskets supporting agriculture and animal husbandry.
Some North American cities have banned the planting of mulberries because of the large amounts of pollen they produce, posing a potential health hazard for some pollen allergy sufferers.[11] In actuality, it is only the male mulberry trees that produce pollen; this light-weight pollen can be inhaled deeply into the lungs, sometimes triggering asthma.[12][13] Conversely, female mulberry trees produce all-female flowers, which draw pollen and dust from the air. Because of this pollen-absorbing feature, all-female mulberry trees have an OPALS allergy scale rating of just 1, and are considered "allergy-free".[12]
Fortunately, mulberry tree scion wood can easily be grafted onto other mulberry trees during the winter, when the tree is dormant. One common scenario is converting a problematic male mulberry tree to an allergy-free female tree, by grafting all-female mulberry tree scions to a male mulberry that has been pruned back hard.[14] However, any new growth from below the graft(s) must be removed, as they would be from the original male mulberry tree.[15]
Silk industry[edit]
Mulberry leaves, particularly those of the white mulberry, are ecologically important as the sole food source of the silkworm (Bombyx mori, named after the mulberry genus Morus), the pupa/cocoon of which is used to make silk.[16][17] Other Lepidoptera larvae—which include the common emerald, the lime hawk-moth, and the sycamore moth—also sometimes eat the plant.
Pigments[edit]
Mulberry fruit color derives from anthocyanins which are under basic research for mechanisms of various diseases.[18][19] Anthocyanins are responsible for the attractive colors of fresh plant foods, including orange, red, purple, black, and blue. These colors are water-soluble and easily extractable, yielding natural food colorants. Due to a growing demand for natural food colorants, their significance in the food industry is increasing.
A cheap and industrially feasible method has been developed to extract anthocyanins from mulberry fruit which could be used as a fabric tanning agent or food colorant of high color value (above 100). Scientists found that, of thirty-one Chinese mulberry cultivars tested, the total anthocyanin yield varied from 148 mg to 2725 mg per liter of fruit juice.[20] It was also found that all the sugars, acids, and vitamins of the fruit remained intact in the residual juice after removal of the anthocyanins, so the juice could be used to produce products such as juice, wine, and sauce.
Anthocyanin content depends on climate and area of cultivation and is particularly high in sunny climates.[21] This finding holds promise for tropical countries that grow mulberry trees as part of the practice of sericulture to profit from industrial anthocyanin production through the recovery of anthocyanins from the mulberry fruit.
This offers a challenging task to the mulberry germplasm resources for
- exploration and collection of fruit yielding mulberry species;
- their characterization, cataloging, and evaluation for anthocyanin content by using traditional as well as modern means and biotechnology tools;
- developing an information system about these cultivars or varieties;
- training and global coordination of genetic stocks;
- evolving suitable breeding strategies to improve the anthocyanin content in potential breeds by collaboration with various research stations in the field of sericulture, plant genetics, and breeding, biotechnology and pharmacology.
In popular culture[edit]
The nursery rhyme Here We Go Round the Mulberry Bush uses the tree in the refrain, as do some contemporary American versions of the nursery rhyme Pop Goes the Weasel. Vincent van Gogh featured the mulberry tree in some of his paintings, notably "Mulberry Tree."[22]
The Roman mythological tale of Pyramus and Thisbe provides a story of the mulberry fruit's color. According to the tale, after the two lovers die tragically, the gods listen to Thisbe's lament and forever change the color of the mulberry fruits into their red stained color to honor the forbidden love.
Gallery[edit]
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Morus nigra male flowers.
References[edit]
- ^ "Morus L.". Germplasm Resources Information Network. United States Department of Agriculture. 2009-01-16. Retrieved 2009-03-11.
- ^ Suttie JM. "Morus alba L.". Plant Production and Protection. Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations. Retrieved 20 October 2012.
- ^ "Red Mulberry". Northeastern Area State & Private Forestry - USDA Forest Service. Retrieved 1 November 2011.
- ^ Zhengyi Wu, Zhe-Kun Zhou and Michael G. Gilbert. "Flora of China" 5. Retrieved 21 July 2014.
|chapter=
ignored (help) - ^ The Cloudforest Gardener
- ^ The Cloudforest Gardener
- ^ Mulberry
- ^ Boning, Charles R. (2006). Florida's Best Fruiting Plants: Native and Exotic Trees, Shrubs, and Vines. Sarasota, Florida: Pineapple Press, Inc. p. 153.
- ^ Cui XQ, Wang HQ, Liu C, Chen RY (July 2008). "Study of anti-oxidant phenolic compounds from stem barks of Morus yunanensis" [Study of anti-oxidant phenolic compounds from stem barks of Morus yunanensis]. Zhongguo Zhong Yao Za Zhi (in Chinese) 33 (13): 1569–72. PMID 18837317.
- ^ "White mulberry, Morus alba". Ohio Perennial and Biennial Weed Guide. The Ohio State University. Retrieved 20 October 2012.
- ^ "City of El Paso agenda item, July 10 2007". Retrieved 21 July 2014.
- ^ a b Ogren, Thomas Leo (2000). Allergy-Free Gardening. Berkeley, California: Ten Speed Press. ISBN 1580081665.
- ^ Wilson, Charles L. "Tree pollen and hay fever". Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. Retrieved 17 May 2014.
- ^ Ogren, Thomas Leo (2003). Safe Sex in the Garden : and Other Propositions for an Allergy-Free World. Berkeley: Ten Speed Press. pp. 22–23. ISBN 1580083145.
- ^ Phipps, Nikki. "Can Grafted Trees Revert To Their Rootstock?". gardeningknowhow.com. Retrieved 16 May 2014.
- ^ Ombrello, T PhD. "The mulberry tree and its silkworm connection". Department of Biology, Union County College, Cranford, NJ. Retrieved 20 October 2012.
- ^ "Mulberry silk". Central Silk Board, Ministry of Textiles - Govt of India. 2012. Retrieved 20 October 2012.
- ^ Wrolstad RE (2001). "The possible health benefits of anthocyanin pigments and polyphenolics". Linus Pauling Institute, Oregon State University. Retrieved 20 June 2014.
- ^ Hou DX (March 2003). "Potential mechanisms of cancer chemoprevention by anthocyanins". Current Molecular Medicine 3 (2): 149–59. doi:10.2174/1566524033361555. PMID 12630561.
- ^ Liu X, Xiao G, Chen W, Xu Y, Wu J (2004). "Quantification and Purification of Mulberry Anthocyanins with Macroporous Resins". Journal of Biomedicine & Biotechnology 2004 (5): 326–331. doi:10.1155/S1110724304403052. PMC 1082888. PMID 15577197.
- ^ Matus JT, Loyola R, Vega A, et al. (2009). "Post-veraison sunlight exposure induces MYB-mediated transcriptional regulation of anthocyanin and flavonol synthesis in berry skins of Vitis vinifera". Journal of Experimental Botany 60 (3): 853–67. doi:10.1093/jxb/ern336. PMC 2652055. PMID 19129169.
- ^ van Gogh V (1889). "Mulberry Tree". van Gogh Collection. Norton Simon Museum, Pasadena, California. Retrieved 20 October 2012.
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Rights holder/Author | Wikipedia |
Source | http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Morus_(plant)&oldid=640000073 |
North Atlantic and Arctic: Ungava Bay in Canada along the North American coast to Cape Hatteras; North Carolina in the western Atlantic. East and west coast of Greenland; around Iceland; from Barents Sea including the region around Bear Island along the European coast to Bay of Biscay (Ref. 88171).
- Cohen, D.M., T. Inada, T. Iwamoto and N. Scialabba 1990 FAO species catalogue. Vol. 10. Gadiform fishes of the world (Order Gadiformes). An annotated and illustrated catalogue of cods, hakes, grenadiers and other gadiform fishes known to date. FAO Fish. Synop. 125(10). Rome: FAO. 442 p. (Ref. 1371)
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Rights holder/Author | Susan M. Luna, FishBase |
Source | http://www.fishbase.org/summary/SpeciesSummary.php?id=69 |
benthopelagic; oceanodromous (Ref. 51243); brackish; marine; depth range 0 - 600 m (Ref. 1371), usually 150 - 200 m (Ref. 54441)
- Riede, K. 2004 Global register of migratory species - from global to regional scales. Final Report of the R&D-Projekt 808 05 081. Federal Agency for Nature Conservation, Bonn, Germany. 329 p. (Ref. 51243)
- Cohen, D.M., T. Inada, T. Iwamoto and N. Scialabba 1990 FAO species catalogue. Vol. 10. Gadiform fishes of the world (Order Gadiformes). An annotated and illustrated catalogue of cods, hakes, grenadiers and other gadiform fishes known to date. FAO Fish. Synop. 125(10). Rome: FAO. 442 p. (Ref. 1371)
- FAO-FIGIS 2001 A world overview of species of interest to fisheries. Chapter: Gadus morhua. Retrieved on 30 May 2005, from www.fao.org/figis/servlet/species?fid=2218. 4p. FIGIS Species Fact Sheets. Species Identification and Data Programme-SIDP, FAO-FIGIS (Ref. 54441)
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Rights holder/Author | Susan M. Luna, FishBase |
Source | http://www.fishbase.org/summary/SpeciesSummary.php?id=69 |
Tumor of skin. Neoplasia (tumors of unknown origin)
- Dethlefsen, V. 1989 Krankheiten des Dorsches (Gadus morhua) der Ostsee. Infn Fischw. 36(2):62-67. (Ref. 6024)
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Rights holder/Author | Rainer Froese, FishBase |
Source | http://www.fishbase.org/Diseases/diseasesList.cfm?ID=69&StockCode=79 |
Barcode of Life Data Systems (BOLDS) Stats
Public Records: 22
Specimens with Barcodes: 103
Species With Barcodes: 1
Gannets are seabirds comprising the genus Morus, in the family Sulidae, closely related to boobies.
The gannets are large white birds with yellowish heads; black-tipped wings; and long bills. Northern gannets are the largest seabirds in the North Atlantic, with a wingspan of up to 2 metres (6.6 ft). The other two species occur in the temperate seas around southern Africa, southern Australia and New Zealand.
Gannets hunt fish by diving from a height into the sea and pursuing their prey underwater. Gannets have a number of adaptations which enable them to do this:
- no external nostrils, they are located inside the mouth instead;
- air sacs in the face and chest under the skin which act like bubble wrapping, cushioning the impact with the water;
- positioning of the eyes far enough forward on the face for binocular vision, allowing them to judge distances accurately.
Gannets can dive from a height of 30 metres (98 ft), achieving speeds of 100 kilometres per hour (62 mph) as they strike the water, enabling them to catch fish much deeper than most airborne birds.
The gannet's supposed capacity for eating large quantities of fish has led to "gannet" becoming a disapproving description of somebody who eats excessively, similar to "glutton".
Contents
Mating and nesting[edit]
Gannets are colonial breeders on islands and coasts, normally laying one chalky, blue egg. It takes five years for gannets to reach maturity. First-year birds are completely black, and subsequent sub-adult plumages show increasing amounts of white.
The most important nesting ground for northern gannets is the United Kingdom with about two thirds of the world's population. These live mainly in Scotland, including the Shetland Isles. The rest of the world's population is divided between Canada, Ireland, Faroe Islands and Iceland, with small numbers in France (they are often seen in the Bay of Biscay), the Channel Islands, Norway and a single colony in Germany on Heligoland. The biggest northern gannet colony is in the Scottish islands of St Kilda; this colony alone comprises 20% of the entire world's population. Sulasgeir off the coast of the Isle of Lewis, Bass Rock in the Firth of Forth, Grassholm in Pembrokeshire, Sceilig Bheag, Ireland and Bonaventure Island, Quebec are also important northern gannet breeding sites.
Systematics and evolution[edit]
The three gannet species are now usually placed in the genus Morus, Abbott's booby in Papasula, and the remaining boobies in Sula. However, some authorities believe that all nine sulid species should be considered congeneric, in Sula. At one time, the various gannet species were considered to be a single species.
- Northern gannet (also known as "solan goose"), Morus bassanus
- Cape gannet, Morus capensis
- Australasian gannet, Morus serrator
Most fossil gannets are from the Late Miocene or Pliocene, a time when the diversity of seabirds in general was much higher than today. It is not completely clear what caused the decline in species at the end of the Pleistocene; increased competition due to the spread of marine mammals may have played a role.
The genus Morus is much better documented in the fossil record than Sula, though the latter is more numerous today. The reasons are not clear; it might be that boobies were better-adapted or simply "lucky" to occur in the right places for dealing with the challenges of the Late Pliocene ecological change, or it could be that many more fossil boobies still await discovery. Notably, gannets are today restricted to temperate oceans while boobies are also found in tropical waters, whereas several of the prehistoric gannet species had a more equatorial distribution than their congeners of today.
Fossil species of gannets are:
- Morus loxostylus (Early Miocene of EC USA)—includes M. atlanticus
- Morus olsoni (Middle Miocene of Romania)
- Morus lompocanus (Lompoc Late Miocene of Lompoc, USA)
- Morus magnus (Late Miocene of California)
- Morus peruvianus (Pisco Late Miocene of Peru)
- Morus vagabundus (Temblor Late Miocene of California)
- Morus willetti (Late Miocene of California)—formerly in Sula
- Morus sp. (Temblor Late Miocene of Sharktooth Hill, US: Miller 1961)—possibly M. magnus
- Morus sp. 1 (Late Miocene/Early Pliocene of Lee Creek Mine, US)
- Morus sp. 2 (Late Miocene/Early Pliocene of Lee Creek Mine, US)
- Morus peninsularis (Early Pliocene)
- Morus recentior (Middle Pliocene of California, US)
- Morus reyanus – Del Rey gannet (Late Pleistocene of W US)
Cultural references[edit]
In many parts of the United Kingdom, the term "gannet" is used to refer to people who steadily eat vast quantities of food especially at public functions.[1][2] But this characterisation, that implies that the birds feeding behaviour is one of grabbing all the available food, is not borne out by recent studies tracking gannet fishing patterns.[3]
Young gannets were historically used as a food source, a tradition still practised in Ness, Scotland, where they are called "guga". Like examples of continued traditional whale harvesting the modern day hunting of gannet chicks results in great controversies as to whether it should continue to be afforded "exemption from the ordinary protection afforded to sea birds in UK and EU law".[4][5]
References[edit]
- Miller, Loye H. (1961). "Birds from the Miocene of Sharktooth Hill, California". Condor 63 (5): 399–402. doi:10.2307/1365299.
- ^ "Gannet - Wiktionary". 2014-07-06.
- ^ "Gannet: definition of gannet in Oxford dictionary (British & World English)". 2014-07-06.
- ^ "Why the gannet isn't really such a gannet after all: Seabirds stick to their own fishing grounds and avoid other birds' patches". 2014-07-06.
- ^ "The Hebridean guga hunt is 'ancient and sustainable', not a crime". 2014-07-06.
- ^ "BBC News - Gaga for guga: Ten things on Scottish island delicacy". 2014-07-06.
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Source | http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Gannet&oldid=644917129 |
North Atlantic (including Baltic Sea, North Sea).
Depth range based on 470642 specimens in 1 taxon.
Water temperature and chemistry ranges based on 253450 samples.
Environmental ranges
Depth range (m): -9 - 975
Temperature range (°C): -2.072 - 15.532
Nitrate (umol/L): 1.139 - 26.300
Salinity (PPS): 6.094 - 35.639
Oxygen (ml/l): 0.573 - 8.544
Phosphate (umol/l): 0.223 - 3.328
Silicate (umol/l): 0.987 - 72.643
Graphical representation
Depth range (m): -9 - 975
Temperature range (°C): -2.072 - 15.532
Nitrate (umol/L): 1.139 - 26.300
Salinity (PPS): 6.094 - 35.639
Oxygen (ml/l): 0.573 - 8.544
Phosphate (umol/l): 0.223 - 3.328
Silicate (umol/l): 0.987 - 72.643
Note: this information has not been validated. Check this *note*. Your feedback is most welcome.
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Rights holder/Author | Ocean Biogeographic Information System |
Source | http://www.iobis.org/mapper/?taxon_id=627911 |
Pleistophora disease. Parasitic infestations (protozoa, worms, etc.)
- Waluga, D., T. Wlasow, E. Dyner and A. Swiatecki 1986 Studies on the etiopathogenesis of fish diseases in the Baltic Sea. Acta Ichthyol. Pisc. 16(2):53-72. (Ref. 6025)
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Rights holder/Author | Rainer Froese, FishBase |
Source | http://www.fishbase.org/Diseases/diseasesList.cfm?ID=69&StockCode=79 |
Genomic DNA is available from 1 specimen with morphological vouchers housed at Bermuda Aquarium, Museum and Zoo
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Source | http://www.oglf.org/catalog/details.php?id=T00128 |